{"id":191702,"date":"2026-10-20T07:07:04","date_gmt":"2026-10-20T12:07:04","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.arbin.com\/?p=191702"},"modified":"2026-10-20T07:09:51","modified_gmt":"2026-10-20T12:09:51","slug":"electrochemical-techniques-for-battery-research","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.arbin.com\/ko\/electrochemical-techniques-for-battery-research.html","title":{"rendered":"Electrochemical Techniques for Battery Research"},"content":{"rendered":"<!-- Arbin AN-028 \"Electrochemical Techniques for Battery Research\" (no PDF). Paste the whole file into one Beaver Builder HTML module. --><header><a href=\"https:\/\/www.arbin.com\/\">Home<\/a> \u00a0\u203a\u00a0 <a href=\"https:\/\/www.arbin.com\/resources.html\">Resources<\/a> \u00a0\u203a\u00a0 <a href=\"https:\/\/www.arbin.com\/category\/application-notes\">Application Notes<\/a> \u00a0\u203a\u00a0 Electrochemical techniques Application Note AN-028\r\n<h1>Electrochemical Techniques for Battery Research<\/h1>\r\n<h2>Summary<\/h2>\r\n<p>Cycling shows how much capacity a cell has and how fast it fades, but not why. GITT, PITT, cyclic voltammetry and EIS each probe a different part of the answer. This note sets out what each technique applies, measures and reveals, and which cycler specifications decide whether the result is trustworthy.<\/p>\r\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.arbin.com\/request-a-quote.html\">Talk to an Engineer<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.arbin.com\/battery-test-equipment\/cell-testers.html\">See Arbin cell testers<\/a>\r\n<aside aria-label=\"Document information\">\r\n<dl>\r\n<dt>Document<\/dt>\r\n<dd>AN-028<\/dd>\r\n<dt>Released<\/dt>\r\n<dd>Oct 20, 2026<\/dd>\r\n<dt>Topic<\/dt>\r\n<dd>Electrochemistry<\/dd>\r\n<dt>Test level<\/dt>\r\n<dd>Materials \u00b7 Cell<\/dd>\r\n<dt>System<\/dt>\r\n<dd><a href=\"https:\/\/www.arbin.com\/battery-test-equipment\/cell-testers.html\">Arbin cell testers<\/a><\/dd>\r\n<dt>Software<\/dt>\r\n<dd>MITS<\/dd>\r\n<dt>Quality<\/dt>\r\n<dd>ISO\u00a09001:2015 \u00b7 ISO\/IEC\u00a017025<\/dd>\r\n<\/dl>\r\n<\/aside>\r\n<\/header><nav aria-label=\"Contents\">\r\n<h2>Contents<\/h2>\r\n<ol>\r\n<li><a href=\"#s1\">1Why electrochemical techniques<\/a><\/li>\r\n<li><a href=\"#s2\">2GITT<\/a><\/li>\r\n<li><a href=\"#s3\">3PITT<\/a><\/li>\r\n<li><a href=\"#s4\">4Cyclic voltammetry (CV)<\/a><\/li>\r\n<li><a href=\"#s5\">5EIS<\/a><\/li>\r\n<li><a href=\"#s6\">6Comparing the four<\/a><\/li>\r\n<li><a href=\"#s7\">7How the cycler affects results<\/a><\/li>\r\n<li><a href=\"#refs\">\u00a0References<\/a><\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<b>Running one of these tests?<\/b> Tell us the technique, the cell and the material. We can recommend a configuration and supply a worked MITS schedule. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.arbin.com\/request-a-quote.html\">Talk to an Engineer<\/a><\/nav>\r\n<article>\r\n<section id=\"s1\">\r\n<h2>1Why Electrochemical Techniques<\/h2>\r\n<p>Charge\u2013discharge cycling shows how much capacity a cell has and how fast it fades, but not <i>why<\/i>. Electrochemical techniques answer that question: they probe how fast ions diffuse, where redox reactions occur, and which resistances limit performance.<\/p>\r\n<p>Four methods are widely used in battery research: GITT, PITT, cyclic voltammetry (CV) and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). This note summarises what each one applies, what it measures and what it reveals, and explains how the cycler itself affects the quality of the results. All four can be run on Arbin cyclers <a href=\"#r1\">[1]<\/a>.<\/p>\r\n<figure><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.arbin.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/10\/an-028-fig1-gitt-pitt-cv-eis-overview.png\" alt=\"Applied signal and measured response for GITT, PITT, cyclic voltammetry and EIS\" \/>\r\n<figcaption><b>Figure 1.<\/b> Applied signal (orange) and measured response (blue) for GITT, PITT, CV and EIS.<\/figcaption>\r\n<\/figure>\r\n<\/section>\r\n<section id=\"s2\">\r\n<h2>2GITT: Galvanostatic Intermittent Titration<\/h2>\r\n<p>A constant current pulse is applied, followed by a rest until the voltage relaxes. The sequence repeats across the state-of-charge range. The voltage response during each pulse and relaxation gives the chemical diffusion coefficient and the open-circuit voltage curve of the electrode <a href=\"#r3\">[3]<\/a>.<\/p>\r\n<figure><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.arbin.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/10\/an-028-fig2-gitt-pulse-and-relaxation.png\" alt=\"GITT current pulses and the resulting voltage pulse and relaxation response\" \/>\r\n<figcaption><b>Figure 2.<\/b> GITT: constant current pulses, and the voltage pulse and relaxation they produce.<\/figcaption>\r\n<\/figure>\r\nGo deeper\r\n<ul>\r\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.arbin.com\/how-to-set-up-a-galvanostatic-intermittent-titration-technique-test-schedule-in-arbin-mits-software.html\">How to set up a GITT test schedule in Arbin MITS software<\/a> \u2192<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/section>\r\n<section id=\"s3\">\r\n<h2>3PITT: Potentiostatic Intermittent Titration<\/h2>\r\n<p>A small voltage step \u0394E is applied and held while the current decays; the step is repeated across the voltage window. The shape of the current decay gives the diffusion coefficient and reveals phase transitions <a href=\"#r4\">[4]<\/a>.<\/p>\r\n<figure><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.arbin.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/10\/an-028-fig3-pitt-voltage-step-current-decay.png\" alt=\"PITT voltage steps and the resulting current decay\" \/>\r\n<figcaption><b>Figure 3.<\/b> PITT: voltage steps, and the current decay measured after each step.<\/figcaption>\r\n<\/figure>\r\nProgramming PITT\r\n<p>PITT uses the same Set value and step-limit building blocks as GITT, so it is programmed with standard MITS steps. Because the current tail falls to very low values, the auto-switching current ranges are what keep the decay accurate all the way down <a href=\"#r2\">[2]<\/a>. Contact <a href=\"mailto:sales@arbin.com\">sales@arbin.com<\/a> for a worked PITT schedule.<\/p>\r\n<\/section>\r\n<section id=\"s4\">\r\n<h2>4Cyclic Voltammetry (CV)<\/h2>\r\n<p>The voltage is swept linearly at a fixed scan rate between two switching voltages and back, while the current is recorded. Current peaks show the redox potentials, the reversibility of reactions and the electrochemical stability window of electrolytes and materials <a href=\"#r5\">[5]<\/a>.<\/p>\r\n<figure><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.arbin.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/10\/an-028-fig4-cv-sweep-and-peaks.png\" alt=\"Cyclic voltammetry voltage sweep and the resulting current peaks\" \/>\r\n<figcaption><b>Figure 4.<\/b> CV: the linear voltage sweep, and the oxidation and reduction peaks it produces.<\/figcaption>\r\n<\/figure>\r\nGo deeper\r\n<ul>\r\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.arbin.com\/how-to-run-cyclic-voltammetrycv-using-arbin-tester.html\">How to run cyclic voltammetry (CV) using an Arbin tester<\/a> \u2192<\/li>\r\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.arbin.com\/how-to-run-cyclic-voltammetry-on-three-electrode3e-cell-using-arbin-tester.html\">How to run cyclic voltammetry on a three-electrode (3E) cell<\/a> \u2192<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/section>\r\n<section id=\"s5\">\r\n<h2>5Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS)<\/h2>\r\n<p>A small sinusoidal signal is applied over a range of frequencies and the impedance is measured. The Nyquist plot separates ohmic resistance, charge-transfer resistance and diffusion, so the processes that limit performance can be identified and tracked with ageing <a href=\"#r6\">[6]<\/a>.<\/p>\r\n<figure><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.arbin.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/10\/an-028-fig5-eis-signal-and-nyquist.png\" alt=\"EIS sinusoidal excitation signal and the resulting Nyquist plot\" \/>\r\n<figcaption><b>Figure 5.<\/b> EIS: the sinusoidal signal swept over frequency, and the Nyquist plot it produces.<\/figcaption>\r\n<\/figure>\r\nGo deeper\r\n<ul>\r\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.arbin.com\/integrated-electrochemical-impedance-spectroscopy-eis-with-arbin-charge-discharge-channels.html\">Integrated EIS with Arbin charge\/discharge channels<\/a> \u2192<\/li>\r\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.arbin.com\/integration-of-arbin-instruments-with-gamry-potentiostats-for-high-frequency-eis-up-to-2-mhz.html\">Arbin with Gamry potentiostats for high-frequency EIS up to 2 MHz<\/a> \u2192<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/section>\r\n<section id=\"s6\">\r\n<h2>6Comparing the Four Techniques<\/h2>\r\n<p>The four methods differ in what they apply, what they measure and what they reveal, which is what makes them complementary rather than interchangeable.<\/p>\r\n<p><b>Table 1.<\/b> Summary of the four techniques<\/p>\r\n<table>\r\n<thead>\r\n<tr>\r\n<th>Technique<\/th>\r\n<th>Applied<\/th>\r\n<th>Measured<\/th>\r\n<th>Reveals<\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/thead>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>GITT<\/td>\r\n<td>Current pulses and rests<\/td>\r\n<td>Voltage<\/td>\r\n<td>Diffusion coefficient, OCV vs SOC<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>PITT<\/td>\r\n<td>Voltage steps<\/td>\r\n<td>Current decay<\/td>\r\n<td>Diffusion coefficient, phase transitions<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>CV<\/td>\r\n<td>Linear voltage sweep<\/td>\r\n<td>Current<\/td>\r\n<td>Redox potentials, reversibility, stability window<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>EIS<\/td>\r\n<td>Sinusoidal signal over frequency<\/td>\r\n<td>Impedance<\/td>\r\n<td>Ohmic, charge-transfer and diffusion resistance<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<\/section>\r\n<section id=\"s7\">\r\n<h2>7How the Cycler Affects the Results<\/h2>\r\n<p>All four methods extract small signals: a few millivolts of relaxation, a decaying microampere current, a small peak, or a low-amplitude AC response. The cycler therefore sets the limit of what can be measured <a href=\"#r2\">[2]<\/a>.<\/p>\r\n<ul>\r\n<li><b>Current ranges.<\/b> PITT current tails and CV peaks reach very low currents, which need small, auto-switching ranges to stay accurate.<\/li>\r\n<li><b>Resolution and precision.<\/b> Relaxation voltages in GITT and diffusion analysis rely on clean, low-noise readings.<\/li>\r\n<li><b>Timing and logging.<\/b> Fast logging captures the start of each pulse or step; time accuracy matters for long relaxations.<\/li>\r\n<li><b>Bipolar operation.<\/b> CV and EIS cross zero current, so charge and discharge must be smooth with no relay switching.<\/li>\r\n<li><b>Reference electrodes and temperature.<\/b> Auxiliary voltage inputs enable three-electrode cells, and temperature control keeps results comparable.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nArbin\r\n<p>24-bit resolution, \u00b10.01%\u00a0FSR precision (below 10\u00a0ppm on HPS) and auto-switching current ranges down to 10\u00a0\u00b5A; 5\u00a0ms minimum step time; true bipolar circuitry; auxiliary voltage inputs; and integrated Gamry EIS to 100\u00a0kHz \u2014 all programmed in MITS <a href=\"#r1\">[1]<\/a><a href=\"#r2\">[2]<\/a>.<\/p>\r\n24-bitVoltage and current resolution\u00b10.01%Precision (below 10 ppm on HPS)10 \u00b5ALowest auto-switching range5 msMinimum step timeBipolarTrue charge\/discharge, no relays100 kHzIntegrated Gamry EIS\r\n<p>For a system recommendation or a worked schedule for any of these techniques, contact <a href=\"mailto:sales@arbin.com\">sales@arbin.com<\/a> or <a href=\"tel:+19796902751\">+1 979 690 2751<\/a>, or see the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.arbin.com\/battery-test-equipment\/cell-testers.html\">Arbin cell tester range<\/a>.<\/p>\r\n<\/section>\r\n<section id=\"refs\">\r\n<h2>References<\/h2>\r\n<ol>\r\n<li id=\"r1\">[1]Arbin Instruments, \u201cBattery Cell Testers &amp; Cyclers,\u201d <a href=\"https:\/\/www.arbin.com\/battery-test-equipment\/cell-testers.html\">arbin.com\/battery-test-equipment\/cell-testers.html<\/a><\/li>\r\n<li id=\"r2\">[2]Arbin Instruments, \u201cHow to Evaluate Battery Test Equipment,\u201d rev.\u00a04, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.arbin.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/01\/Evaluating-a-Battery-Tester_rev4.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">PDF<\/a><\/li>\r\n<li id=\"r3\">[3]W. Weppner and R. A. Huggins, \u201cDetermination of the kinetic parameters of mixed-conducting electrodes and application to the system Li<sub>3<\/sub>Sb,\u201d <i>J. Electrochem. Soc.<\/i>, vol.\u00a0124, p.\u00a01569, 1977.<\/li>\r\n<li id=\"r4\">[4]C. J. Wen, B. A. Boukamp, R. A. Huggins and W. Weppner, \u201cThermodynamic and mass transport properties of LiAl,\u201d <i>J. Electrochem. Soc.<\/i>, vol.\u00a0126, p.\u00a02258, 1979.<\/li>\r\n<li id=\"r5\">[5]A. J. Bard and L. R. Faulkner, <i>Electrochemical Methods: Fundamentals and Applications<\/i>, 2nd ed. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2001.<\/li>\r\n<li id=\"r6\">[6]A. Lasia, <i>Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy and its Applications<\/i>. New York: Springer, 2014.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/section>\r\n<img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.arbin.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/10\/an-026-lbts-cell.jpg\" alt=\"Arbin LBTS-Cell battery cycler\" \/>\r\n<p>Systems in this note<\/p>\r\n<h3>Arbin Cell Testers<\/h3>\r\n<p>True bipolar circuitry, auto-switching current ranges from 10\u00a0\u00b5A, 24-bit measurement, auxiliary voltage inputs for three-electrode cells and integrated Gamry EIS \u2014 every technique in this note runs on one platform.<\/p>\r\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.arbin.com\/battery-test-equipment\/cell-testers.html\">See all cell testers<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.arbin.com\/request-a-quote.html\">Get a quote<\/a>\r\n<h3>Which technique answers your question?<\/h3>\r\n<p>Tell us what you are trying to measure and on what material. An applications engineer will recommend the method, the configuration and a starting schedule.<\/p>\r\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.arbin.com\/request-a-quote.html\">Talk to an Engineer<\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/www.arbin.com\/request-a-quote.html\">Get a Quote<\/a><\/article>\r\n<section>\r\n<h2>Related application notes<\/h2>\r\n<p>Resistance, measurement quality and system selection on Arbin systems.<\/p>\r\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.arbin.com\/what-is-battery-internal-resistance.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">AN-027Resistance &amp; Power<\/a>\r\n<h3>What Is Battery Internal Resistance?<\/h3>\r\n<p>What ACIR, DCIR and R\u2080 actually mean, and how to measure them.<\/p>\r\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.arbin.com\/what-is-battery-internal-resistance.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Read note \u2192<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.arbin.com\/hybrid-pulse-power-characterization-hppc-testing-with-arbin-mits-pro.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">AN-024Resistance &amp; Power<\/a>\r\n<h3>Hybrid Pulse Power Characterization (HPPC) Testing<\/h3>\r\n<p>Pulse resistance and pulse power, measured on an Arbin HPS.<\/p>\r\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.arbin.com\/hybrid-pulse-power-characterization-hppc-testing-with-arbin-mits-pro.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Read note \u2192<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.arbin.com\/what-is-a-battery-cycler.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">AN-026Accuracy &amp; Precision<\/a>\r\n<h3>What Is a Battery Cycler?<\/h3>\r\n<p>How a cycler works and the specifications that decide data quality.<\/p>\r\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.arbin.com\/what-is-a-battery-cycler.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Read note \u2192<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.arbin.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/01\/Evaluating-a-Battery-Tester_rev4.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">PDFAccuracy &amp; Precision<\/a>\r\n<h3>How to Evaluate Battery Test Equipment<\/h3>\r\n<p>Resolution, precision, accuracy and current ranges, in full.<\/p>\r\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.arbin.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/01\/Evaluating-a-Battery-Tester_rev4.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Open PDF \u2192<\/a><\/section>\r\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>What GITT, PITT, cyclic voltammetry and EIS each apply, measure and reveal, and the cycler specifications that decide the result.<\/p>","protected":false},"author":6,"featured_media":191708,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_acf_changed":false,"_seopress_titles_title":"Electrochemical Techniques: GITT, PITT, CV and EIS | Arbin","_seopress_titles_desc":"What GITT, PITT, cyclic voltammetry and EIS each apply, measure and reveal, and the cycler specifications \u2014 current ranges, resolution, logging and bipolar operation \u2014 that decide whether the result is 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